Today in 1861, near Apache Pass in southeastern Arizona,

The earliest military action to be revered with a Medal of Honor award was performed by Colonel Bernard J.D. Irwin, an assistant army surgeon serving in the first major U.S.-Apache conflict.

Near Apache Pass, in southeastern Arizona, Irwin, an Irish-born doctor, volunteered to go to the rescue of Second Lieutenant George N. Bascom, who was trapped with 60 men of the U.S. Seventh Infantry by the Chiricahua Apaches. Irwin and 14 men, initially without horses, began the 100-mile trek to Bascom's forces riding on mules. After fighting and capturing Apaches along the way and recovering stolen horses and cattle, they reached Bascom's forces on February 14 and proved instrumental in breaking the siege.

The first U.S.-Apache conflict had begun several days before, when Cochise, the Chiricahua Apache chief, kidnapped three white men to exchange for his brother and two nephews held by the U.S. Army on false charges of stealing cattle and kidnapping a child. When the exchange was refused, Cochise killed the white men, and the army responded by killing his relatives, setting off the first of the Apache wars.

Although Irwin's bravery in this conflict was the earliest Medal of Honor action, the award itself was not created until 1862, and it was not until January 21, 1894, that Irwin received the nation's highest military honor.

[February 13, 1861]

Today in 1959, at Amon Carter Field in Fort Worth, Texas,

The United States Air Force retired its last Convair B-36 Peacemaker to become an all-jet bomber force.

 

The Convair B-36 Peacemaker was one of the largest airplanes ever built, and was a key element in maintaining peace during the Cold War with Russia during the 1950s. Originally conceived in 1941 as an intercontinental bomber, it was first produced in the late 1940s, after World War II ended.

Built in Fort Worth, Texas by the Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation (later known
simply as “Convair”), started life as a prop-driven aircraft.  Interestingly, much of the B-36's external skin was made of magnesium, which had a dull color, in contrast to the shiny aluminum used to cover the fore and aft pressurized compartments. During production of the Peacemaker, Convair and the Air Force evolved the plane to the B-36D, B-36F, and B-36H models.

Jets and props are clearly visible.

The four bomb bays could carry up to 86,000 pounds (39,000 kg) of bombs, more than 10 times the load carried by the World War II workhorse, the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, and substantially more than the entire B-17's gross weight. The B-36 was not designed with nuclear weaponry in mind, because the mere existence of such weapons was top secret during the period when the B-36 was conceived and designed (1941–46). Nevertheless, the B-36 stepped into its nuclear delivery role immediately upon becoming operational.

A major change to the original, basic B-36 design was the addition of jet engines. Beginning with the B-36D, the Peacemaker added four General Electric J47-GE-19 jet engines, mounted in pods like those used in the Boeing B-47. Ultimately, the Air Force had all earlier B-36 units reconfigured with the jet engines.  In all, 384 Peacemakers were built, all with 6 propellers mounted on the back of the wings, and most with an additional 4 jet engines mounted on the wingtips.

The progression of US bombers up to the B-36.

On this date, the Air Force also received the first Boeing B-52G with larger fuel tanks,
stretching the unrefueled range from 6,000 to 10,000 miles.

[February 12, 1959]

Today in 1942, in the English Channel,

In what was later called “The Mad Dash,” the German battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst, as well as the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen, escaped from the French port of Brest and made a run up the English Channel to safety in German waters.

KMS Scharnhorst

The Gneisenau and Scharnhorst had been anchored at Brest since March 1941. The Prinz Eugen had been tied to the French port since the Bismarck sortie in May 1941, when it and the battleship Bismarck made their own run through the Atlantic and the Denmark Strait to elude Royal Navy gunfire. All three were subject to periodic bombing raids–and damage–by the British, as the Brits attempted to ensure that the German warships never left the French coast. But despite the careful watch of British subs and aircraft, German Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax launched Operation Cerberus to lead the ships out of the French port.

KMS Gneisenau

The Germans, who had controlled and occupied France since June 1940, drew British fire deliberately, and the Gneisenau, Scharnhorst, and Prinz Eugen used the resulting skirmish as a defensive smoke screen. Six German destroyers and 21 torpedo boats accompanied the ships for protection as they moved north late on the night of February 11. In the morning, German planes provided air cover as well; ace pilot Adolf Galland led 250 other fighters in an unusually well-coordinated joint effort of the German navy and Luftwaffe.

The British Royal Air Force also coordinated its attack with the Royal Navy Swordfish squadron, but a late start–the RAF did not realize until the afternoon of February 12 that the German squadron had pushed out to sea–and bad weather hindered their effort. All three German warships made it to a German port on February 13, although the Gneisenau and Scharnhorst had been damaged by British mines along the way. The British lost 40 aircraft and six Navy Swordfish in the confrontation, while the Germans lost a torpedo boat and 17 aircraft.



KMS Prinz Eugen

The “Channel Dash,” as it came to be called, was extremely embarrassing to the British, as it happened right under their noses. They would get revenge of a sort, though: British warships sunk the Scharnhorst in December 1944 as the German ship attempted to attack a Russian convoy. The Gneisenau was destroyed in a bombing raid while still in port undergoing repairs, and the Prinz Eugen survived the war, but was taken over by the U.S. Navy at war’s end.

[February 11, 1942]

Today in 1763, in Paris, France,

The Seven Years’ War, a global conflict known in America as the French and Indian War, ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris by France, Great Britain, and Spain.

The war was characterized by barbarity and ferocity.

The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years' War. The war was fought between the colonies of British America and New France, with both sides supported by military units from their parent countries of Great Britain and France, as well as Native American allies. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, compared to 2 million in the British North American colonies. The outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Long in conflict, the metropole nations declared war on each other in 1756, escalating the war from a regional affair into an international conflict.

In many ways, the war presaged battles of the American Revolution.

The war was fought primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the South to Nova Scotia in the North. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne and present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington ambushed a French patrol.

 

The Treaty of Paris.

The outcome of the war was one of the most significant developments in a century of
Anglo-French conflict. France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (including New Orleans) to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spain's loss to Britain of Florida. (Spain had ceded this to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba). France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in eastern North America.
[February 10, 1763]

Today in 1972, off the coast of Vietnam,

The aircraft carrier USS Constellation joined the aircraft carriers Coral Sea and Hancock for military operations against North Vietnam.

From 1964 to 1975, there were usually three U.S. carriers stationed in the water near Vietnam at any given time. Carrier aircraft participated in the bombing of North Vietnam and also provided close air support for U.S. and South Vietnamese forces in South Vietnam. In 1972, the number of U.S. carriers off Vietnam increased to seven as part of the U.S. reaction to the North Vietnamese Eastertide Offensive that was launched on March 30.  Carrier-based aircraft played a critical role in the air operations that helped the South Vietnamese defeat the communist invasion and led to peace talks that allowed the U.S. to withdraw combat troops from southeast Asia.

[February 9, 1972]

Today in 1968, in Quảng Trị Province, South Vietnam,

The Battle of Lang Vei began.

Towards the end of 1967 the 198th Tank Battalion, Vietnam People's Army (VPA) 203rd Armored Regiment, received instructions from the North Vietnamese Ministry of Defense to reinforce the 304th Division as part of the Route 9-Khe Sanh Campaign. After an arduous journey down the Ho Chi Minh trail in January 1968, the 198th Tank Battalion linked up with the 304th Division for a major offensive along Highway 9, which stretched from the Laotian border through to Quảng Trị Province. On 23 January, the VPA 24th Regiment attacked the small Laotian outpost at Bane Houei Sane, under the control of the Royal Laos Army BV-33 ‘Elephant’ Battalion.

Most of the fighting at Lang Vei occurred at night.

In that battle the 198th Tank Battalion failed to reach the battle on time because its tank crews struggled to navigate their tank equipment through the rough local terrain. However, as soon as the PT-76 tanks of the 198th Tank Battalion turned up at Bane Houei Sane, the Laotian soldiers and their families panicked and retreated into South Vietnam.

After Bane Houei Sane was captured, the 24th Regiment prepared for another attack which
targeted the U.S. Special Forces Camp at Lang Vei, manned by Detachment A-101 of the 5th Special Forces Group. On 6 February, the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment, again supported by the 198th Tank Battalion, launched their assault on Lang Vei. Despite fighting with air and artillery support, the U.S.-led forces conceded ground and the North Vietnamese quickly dominated their positions.

Lang Vei, 1968.

By the early hours of 7 February the command bunker was the only position still held by
allied forces, but they were besieged by North Vietnamese soldiers above ground. During the entire ordeal, U.S. and indigenous Civilian Irregular Defense Group (CIDG) forces trapped inside the command bunker had to endure North Vietnamese harassment, which came in the form of fragmentation and tear gas grenades. To rescue the American survivors inside the Lang Vei Camp, a counter-attack was mounted, but the Laotian soldiers, who formed the bulk of the attack formation, refused to fight the North Vietnamese. Later on, U.S. Special Forces personnel were able to escape from the camp, and were rescued by
a U.S. Marine task force.

[February 6, 1968]

Today in 1810, in Cadiz, Spain

The Siege of Cádiz began during the Peninsular War.

At the time, Cadiz was a large Spanish naval base of Cádiz and a French army laid siege to the base from 5 February 1810 to 24 August 1812.  Following the occupation of Seville, Cádiz became the Spanish seat of power, and was targeted by 70,000 French troops under the command of the Marshals Claude Victor and Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult for one of the most important sieges of the war.  Defending the city were 2,000 Spanish troops who, as the siege progressed, received aid from 10,000 Spanish reinforcements as well as British and Portuguese troops.

 

 

During the two and a half year siege, the Cortes Generales government in Cadiz (the Cádiz Cortes) drew up a new constitution to reduce the strength of the monarchy (a constitution eventually revoked by Fernando VII).

In October 1810, a mixed Anglo-Spanish relief force embarked on a disastrous landing at Fuengirola. A second relief attempt was made at Tarifa in 1811. However, despite defeating a detached French force of 15,000–20,000 under Marshal Victor at the Battle of Barrosa, the siege was not lifted.

Cadiz served as headquarters for the Spanish fleet.

In 1812, the Battle of Salamanca eventually forced the French troops to retreat from
Andalusia, for fear of being cut off by the allied armies.  Defeat at Cádiz contributed decisively to the liberation of Spain from French occupation, due to the survival of the Spanish government and the use of Cádiz as a jump off point for the Allied forces.

[February 5, 1810]

Today in 1941, in Washington, D.C.,

The United Service Organizations, Inc., a civilian agency, was founded.

The USO organization was formed to offer support for U.S. service members and their families, and sent many actors, musicians, and other performers to entertain the troops. Since its inception, the USO has worked in partnership with the Department of Defense (DOD), relying heavily on private contributions and on funds, goods, and services from various corporate and individual donors. Although congressionally chartered, it is not a government agency. The USO operates 160 centers worldwide.

Bob Hope was a fixture of USO tours during the Vietnam War.

During World War II, the USO became the G.I.'s "home away from home" and began a tradition of entertaining the troops that continues today. Involvement in the USO was one of the many ways in which the nation had come together to support the war effort, with nearly 1.5 million Americans having volunteered their services in some way. After it was disbanded in 1947, it was revived in 1950 for the Korean War, after which it also provided peacetime services. During the Vietnam War, USOs were sometimes located in combat zones.

The organization became particularly famous for its live performances called Camp Shows, through which the entertainment industry helped boost the morale of its servicemen and women. Hollywood in general was eager to show its patriotism, and many famous celebrities joined the ranks of USO entertainers. They entertained in military bases at home and overseas, sometimes placing their own lives in danger, by traveling or performing under hazardous conditions.

Today the USO has over 160 locations around the world in 14 countries (including the U.S.) and 27 states. In 2009, USO centers served 7.7 million visitors. That number climbed to more than 8 million in 2011.

[February 4, 1941]

Today in 1859, in Rheydt in the Prussian Rhine Province,

Hugo Junkers was born.

 

Junkers was a German engineer and aircraft designer. As such he is generally credited with pioneering the design of all-metal airplanes and flying wings. As founder of the Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG, he was one of the mainstays of the German aircraft industry in the years between World War I and World War II. In particular his multi-engined all-metal passenger- and freightplanes helped establish airlines in Germany as well as all over the world. Although his name is also linked to some of the most successful German warplanes of the Second World War, Hugo Junkers himself had nothing to do with their development. He was forced out of his own company by the Nazi government in 1934 and died in 1935.

As well as aircraft, Junkers also built both Diesel and petrol engines and held various patents on thermodynamic and metallurgical subjects. He was also one of the main sponsors of the Bauhaus movement and facilitated the move of the Bauhaus from Weimar to Dessau (where his factory was situated) in 1925.

Amongst the highlight of his career were the Junkers J 1 of 1915, (the first aircraft to use an all-metal skin cantilever wing design and minimal external bracing), the Junkers F 13 of 1919 (the world's first all-metal passenger aircraft), the Junkers W 33 (which made the first successful east-to-west crossing of the Atlantic ocean), the Junkers G 38 "flying wing", and the Junkers Ju 52, affectionately nicknamed "Tante Ju", one of the most famous airliners of the 1930s.

[February 3, 1859]

Today in 1943, on the northern outskirts of Stalingrad, Soviet Union,

At Stalingrad, the remnants of the German 6^th Armee under General Strecker in the northern pocket of the Kessel ceased fighting and surrendered to the Red Army.

German troops march into Soviet captivity.

The Battle of Stalingrad began in the summer of 1942 with a German assault on the city, a major industrial center and a potential strategic coup, and an early determination that the capture of the city would be swift and relatively easy.  However, repeated attacks by the 6th Army, under General Friedrich von Paulus, and part of the 4th Panzer Army, under General Ewald von Kleist, could not break past the determined defense of the city by the Soviet 62nd Army.  German forces pushed the Soviets almost to the Volga River in mid-October and eventually encircled Stalingrad (before later becoming encircled themselves).

 

Stubborn, resourceful defenders, diminishing resources, partisan guerilla attacks, and the harsh Russian winter were already taking their toll on the German forces when, on November 19, the Soviets launched a massive counteroffensive.  The Soviet attack began with a massive artillery bombardment of the German positions and ended with the Soviets encircling the enemy, launching pincer movements from north and south simultaneously, eventually making the German position untenable.

Von Paulus surrenders.

Surrender was the German’s only hope for survival, but Hitler refused to consider it: " Surrender is out of the question.  The 6th Army will hold its positions to the last man and the last round."  

 

In fact, Von Paulus held out until January 31, 1943, when he finally surrendered. Of more than 280,000 men under Paulus' command, half were already dead or dying, about 35,000 had been evacuated from the front, and the remaining 91,000 were hauled off to Soviet POW camps.  Only about 5,000 would ever return to Germany after the war.

 

Soviet troops celebrate their victory.

Pockets of German belligerence continued until February 2.

[February 2, 1943]

Today in 1800, in the open sea of the Atlantic Ocean

The USS Constellation engaged in a decisive battle with the French vessel La Vengeance.

USS Constitution is still an active warship in the US Navy.

An undeclared war between the United States and France, the Quasi-War was the result of disagreements over treaties and America's status as a neutral in the Wars of the French Revolution. Fought entirely at sea, the Quasi-War was largely a success for the fledgling US Navy as its vessels captured numerous French privateers and warships, while only losing one of its vessels. By late 1800, attitudes in France shifted and hostilities were concluded by the Treaty of Mortefontaine.

 

 

The Quasi-War was officially fought from July 7, 1798, until the signing of the Treaty of Mortefontaine on September 30, 1800. French privateers had been preying on American shipping for several years prior to the beginning of the conflict.

The two most noteworthy battles of the conflict involved the 38-gun frigate USS Constellation. Commanded by Thomas Truxtun, Constellation sighted the 36-gun French frigate L'Insurgente on February 9, 1799. The French ship closed to board, but Truxtun used Constellation's superior speed to maneuver away, raking L'Insurgente with fire. After a brief fight, Capt. M. Barreaut surrendered his ship to Truxtun.

 

Almost a year later, on February 2, 1800, Constellation encountered the 52-gun frigate La Vengeance. Fighting a five-hour battle at night, the French ship was pummeled, but was able to escape in the darkness.

[February 1, 1800]